John Gotti Received More Publicity Any Crime Figure

Differential Association Theory Differential association theory was Sutherland's major sociological contribution to criminology; similar in importance to strain theory and social control theory. These theories all explain deviance in terms of the individual's social relationships. Sutherland's theory departs from the pathological perspective and biological perspective by attributing the cause of crime to the social context of individuals. â€Å"He rejected biological determinism and the extreme individualism of psychiatry, as well as economic explanations of crime.His search for an alternative understanding of crime led to the development of differential association theory. In contrast to both classical and biological theories, differential association theory poses no obvious threats to the humane treatment of those identified as criminals. â€Å"(Gaylord, 1988:1) The principle of differential association asserts that a person becomes delinquent because of an â€Å"excess† o f definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law.In other word, criminal behavior emerges when one is exposed to more social message favoring conduct than prosocial messages (Sutherland, 1947). Sutherland argued that the concept of differential association and differential social organization could be applied to the individual level and to aggregation (or group) level respectively. While differential association theory explains why any individual gravitates toward criminal behavior, differential social organization explains why crime rates of different social entities different from each other's.The first explicit statement of the theory of differential association appears in the 1939 edition of Principles of Criminology and in the fourth edition of it, he presented his final theory. His theory has 9 basic postulates. 1. Criminal behavior is learned. This means that criminal behavior is not inherited, as such; also the person who is not al ready trained in crime does not invent criminal behavior. 2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication. This communication is verbal in many cases but includes gestures. 3.The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups. Negatively, this means the impersonal communication, such as movies or newspaper play a relatively unimportant part in committing criminal behavior. 4. When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes (a) techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes very simple; (b) the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes. 5. The specific direction of the motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable.This different context of situation usually is found in US where culture conflict in relation to the legal code exists. 6. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions fa vorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law. This is the principle of differential association. When people become criminal, they do so not only because of contacts with criminal patterns but also because of isolation from anticriminal patterns. Negatively, this means that association which are neutral so far as crime is concerned have little or no effect on the genesis of criminal behavior. . Differential association may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. Priority seems to be important principally through its selective influence and intensity has to do with such things as the prestige of the source of a criminal or anticriminal pattern and with emotional reactions related to the association. These modalities would be rated in quantitative form and mathematical ratio but development of formula in this sense has not been developed and would be very difficult. 8.The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal a nd anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning. Negatively, this means that the learning of criminal behavior is not restricted to the process of imitation. A person who is seduced, for instance, learns criminal behavior by association, but this would not be ordinarily described as imitation. 9. While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values since non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values.Thieves generally steal in order to secure money, but likewise honest laborers work in order to money. The attempts to explain criminal behavior by general drives and values such as the money motive have been, and must completely to be, futile, since they explain lawful behavior as completely as they explain criminal behavior. They are similar to respiration, which is necessary for any behavior, but which does not differentiate criminal from noncri minal behavior. (Sutherland, 1974: 75-76)In summary, he believed that an individual’s associations are determined in a general context of social organization (for instance, family income as a factor of determining residence of family and in many cases, delinquency rate is largely related to the rental value of houses) and thus differential group organization as an explanation of various crime rates is consistent with the differential association theory. (Sutherland, 1974: 77) Much of Sutherland’s theory relied upon the work of Chicago school theorists, Shaw and McKay (1931,1969).According to Shaw and McKay, they found that â€Å"delinquency rates increased as one moved away from the center of the city, and ecological rates of delinquency remained stable over generations despite a complete turnover of ethnic composition and social disorganization explained the high rates of delinquency in the inner-city. † (Matsueda: 1988: 280) As a matter of fact, this statement requires qualification because once you pass through the zone in transition, delinquency rates drop as you move out towards the suburbs.Criticism and Contemporary Views Many criticized Sutherland's differential association theory; supporters argued that criticism often resulted from misinterpretation of Sutherland's theory. Donald R. Cressey argued persuasively that many of the critiques were simply â€Å"literary errors† or misinterpretation on the part of the critics. For example, the theory was judged by critics to be invalid because not everyone who had come into contact with criminals became criminal as a result.This misinterprets the theory's proposition that criminal behavior is learned through differential association (relative exposure to criminal and noncriminal patterns) not simply through any contact with persons who have violated the law. (Akers: 1996:229) However, Cressey also pointed out two major weaknesses of Sutherland's theory. the first problem was that t he concept of â€Å"definitions† in the theory was not precisely defined, and the statement did not give good guidance on how to operationalize the ratio or â€Å"excess of definitions† favorable to criminal behavior over definitions unfavorable to criminal behavior.The second real problem was that it left the learning process unspecified. There is virtually no clue in Sutherland's theory as to what in particular would be included in â€Å"all the mechanisms that are involved in any of other learning (Akers: 1996:229-230) Another important criticism argued that Sutherland's theory is a â€Å"cultural deviance† theory as a way of showing that it made wrong presumptions about human behavior and the role of culture in deviant behavior. Matsueda (1988) believed it â€Å"reduces his (Sutherland’s) theory to a caricature† and Bernard objected to the way in which the cultural deviance label has been applied to the original differential association and so cial learning revision†(Bernard and Snipes, 1995: Vold and Bernard, 1986: 227-229) But Akers denies this criticism as another misinterpretation of Sutherland's theory: According to this critique, differential association/social learning theory rests on the assumption that socialization is completely successful and that cultural variability is unlimited, cannot explain individual differences in deviance within the same group and applies only to group differences, has no way of explaining violation of norms to which the individual subscribes, and proposes culture as the single cause of crime. I conclude that the usual attribution of cultural deviance assumptions and explanation to differential association is based on misinterpretations. (Akers: 1996:229) Merton TheoryLike many sociological theories of crime, Robert Merton’s strain/anomie theory has advanced following the work of Emile Durkheim. In Merton’s theory anomie is very similar to the very meaning of the wo rd strain, as he proposed anomie to be a situation in which societies inadvertently bring to bear pressure, or strain, on individuals that can lead to rule-breaking behavior. This pressure, or strain if you will, is caused by the discrepancy between culturally defined goals and the institutionalized means available to achieve these goals. To illustrate this Merton argues that the dominant cultural goal in the U. S is the acquisition of wealth, as a message was depicted that happiness often equated with material success which is often associated with wealth.The socially accepted institutionalized manner of achieving these material goals was believed to be hard work and education, meaning it is widely believed that people who apply themselves to study and work will succeed financially and that those who do not succeed are labeled as either lazy or defective. According to Merton, the problem with this type of society is that the legitimate means for achieving material success are not u niformly distributed. In other words, those from wealthier backgrounds have considerably more access to legitimate means than do those who are economically disadvantaged. As a consequence, anomie, or strain, is generated and produces certain ‘modes of adaptation’, or (simply put) coping strategies, that the disadvantaged use to deal with the pressures that are brought to bear on them. Merton identifies five modes of adaptation: conformity, innovation, retreatism, ritualism, and rebellion.According to Merton, the innovator is the most likely to engage in criminal behavior, as the innovator accepts the socially recognized goals of society, but reject the legitimate means to achieve these goals. Consequently, the innovator uses proceeds from crimes such as fraud, theft, and illegal drug dealing to access culturally defined goals. Critique of Strain/Anomie theory Although Merton’s Strain theory continues to play a role in the sociological theorization of crime today, there are limitations to this theory of crime that have been identified. The first critique of this theory, put forth by Albert Cohen, addressed the fact that there is an ample amount of crime/delinquent behavior that is â€Å"non-utilitarian, malicious, and negativistic† (O’Grady, 2011), which highlights that not all crimes are explicable using Merton’s theory.Although Merton could explain crimes such as fraud and theft on the basis of innovation, he is unable to explain youth crimes that are often engaged in for social status rather than material acquisition. Furthermore, Strain/Anomie theory fails to adequately address issues such as race and gender. Additionally, Strain/Anomie theory is unable to explain the phenomena of white collar crime. [edit] Robert DubinRobert Dubin (1959) viewed deviance as a function of society, disputing the assumption that the deviant adaptations to situations of anomie are necessarily harmful to society. For example, an individua l in the ritualistic adaptation is still playing by the rules and taking part in society. The only deviance lies in abandoning one or more of its culturally prescribed goals.Dubin argued that Merton's focus on the relationship between society’s emphasized goals, and institutionalized prescribed means was inadequate. Dubin felt that a further distinction should be made between cultural goals, institutional means and institutional norms because individuals perceive norms subjectively, interpreting them and acting upon them differently. The personal educational experiences, values, and attitudes may predispose an individual to internalize a norm one way. Another individual with different experiences may legitimately internalize the same norm differently. Both may be acting rationally in their own terms, but the resulting behaviour is different.Dubin also extended Merton’s typology to fourteen, with particular interest in Innovation and Ritualism. Merton proposed that the innovative response to strain was accepting the goal, but rejecting the institutionally prescribed means of achieving the goal. The implication seemed to be that that not only did the individual reject the means, he must actively innovate illegitimate means as a substitute which would not always be true. Dubin also thought that a distinction should be made between the actual behaviour of the actor and the values that drove the behaviour. Instead of Innovation, Dubin proposed Behavioural Innovation and Value Innovation.Similarly, in Ritualism, he proposed Behavioural Ritualism and Value Ritualism (Dubin, 1959: 147-149). Merton (1959: 177-189) commented on Dubin’s revisions, claiming that although Dubin did make valid contributions, they took the focus off deviancy. [edit] Robert AgnewIn 1992, Robert Agnew asserted that strain theory could be central in explaining crime and deviance, but that it needed revision so that it was not tied to social class or cultural variables, but re-focused on norms. To this end, Agnew proposed a general strain theory that is neither structural nor interpersonal but rather individual and emotional, paying especial attention to an individual's immediate social environment.He argued that an individual's actual or anticipated failure to achieve positively valued goals, actual or anticipated removal of positively valued stimuli, and actual or anticipated presentation of negative stimuli all result in strain. Anger and frustration confirm negative relationships. The resulting behavior patterns will often be characterized by more than their share of unilateral action because an individual will have a natural desire to avoid unpleasant rejections, and these unilateral actions (especially when antisocial) will further contribute to an individual's alienation from society. If particular rejections are generalized into feelings that the environment is unsupportive, more strongly negative emotions may motivate the individual to engage in crime.This is most likely to be true for younger individuals, and Agnew suggested that research focus on the magnitude, recency, duration, and clustering of such strain-related events to determine whether a person copes with strain in a criminal or conforming manner. Temperament, intelligence, interpersonal skills, self-efficacy, the presence of conventional social support, and the absence of association with antisocial (e. g. , criminally inclined) age and status peers are chief among the factors Agnew identified as beneficial. [edit] Akers' operationalization of Agnew's theory: Sources of strainAkers (2000: 159) has operationalized Agnew's version of the Strain Theory, as follows: Failure to achieve positively valued goals: he gap between expectations and actual achievements will derive from short- and long-term personal goals, and some of those goals will never be realized because of unavoidable circumstances including both inherent weaknesses and opportunities blocked by othe rs; and the difference between the view of what a person believes the outcome should be and what actually results increases personal disappointment. Frustration is not necessarily due to any outside interference with valued goals, but a direct effect on anger, and has indirect effects on serious crime and aggression. Agnew and White (1992) have produced empirical evidence suggesting that general strain theory was positively able to relate delinquents and drug users, and that the strongest effect on the delinquents studied was the delinquency of their peers.They were interested in drug use because it did not appear to represent an attempt to direct anger or escape pain, but â€Å"is used primarily to manage the negative affect caused by strain. † Up to this point, strain theory had been concerned with types of strain rather than sources of strain whereas the stress of events can be shown to interfere with the achievement of natural expectations or just and fair outcomes. These may be significant events or minor â€Å"hassles† that accumulate and demoralize over time. Frustration leads to dissatisfaction, resentment, and anger — all the emotions customarily associated with strain in criminology. It is natural for individuals to feel distress when they are denied just rewards for their efforts when compared to the efforts and rewards given to similar others for similar outcomes.Agnew (1992) treats anger as the most critical emotion since it is almost always directed outwards and is often related to breakdowns in relationships. Research shows that the stress/crime relationship appears to hold regardless of guilt feelings, age, and capacity to cope when events occur simultaneously or in close succession. [edit] Zhang JieThe strain theory of suicide postulates that suicide is usually preceded by psychological strains. A psychological strain is formed by at least two stresses or pressures, pushing the individual to different directions. A strain can be a consequence of any of the four conflicts: differential values, discrepancy between aspiration and reality, relative deprivation, and lack of coping skills for a crisis.Psychological strains in the form of all the four sources have been tested and supported with a sample of suicide notes in the United States and in rural China through psychological autopsy studies. The strain theory of suicide forms a challenge to the psychiatric model popular among the suicidologists in the world. The strain theory of suicide is based on the theoretical frameworks established by previous sociologists, e. g. Durkheim (1951), Merton (1957), and Agnew (2006), and preliminary tests have been accomplished with some American (Zhang and Lester 2008) and Chinese data (Zhang 2010; Zhang, Dong, Delprino, and Zhou 2009; Zhang, Wieczorek, Conwell, and Tu 2011).There could be four types of strain that precede a suicide, and each can be derived from specific sources. A source of strain must consist of tw o, and at least two, conflicting social facts. If the two social facts are non-contradictory, there would be no strain. Strain Source 1: Differential Values When two conflicting social values or beliefs are competing in an individual’s daily life, the person experiences value strain. The two conflicting social facts are competing personal beliefs internalized in the person’s value system. A cult member may experience strain if the mainstream culture and the cult religion are both considered important in the cult member’s daily life.Other examples include the second generation of immigrants in the United States who have to abide by the ethnic culture rules enforced in the family while simultaneously adapting to the American culture with peers and school. In China, rural young women appreciate gender egalitarianism advocated by the communist government, but at the same time, they are trapped in cultural sexual discrimination as traditionally cultivated by Confucia nism. Another example that might be found in developing countries is the differential values of traditional collectivism and modern individualism. When the two conflicting values are taken as equally important in a person’s daily life, the person experiences great strain. When one value is more important than the other, there is then little or no strain. Strain Source 2: Reality vs. AspirationIf there is a discrepancy between an individual’s aspiration or a high goal and the reality the person has to live with, the person experiences aspiration strain. The two conflicting social facts are one’s splendid ideal or goal and the reality that may prevent one from achieving it. An individual living in the United States expects to be very rich or at least moderately successful as other Americans do, but in reality the means to achieve the goal is not equally available to the person because of his/her social status or any other reasons. Aspirations or goals can be a col lege a person aims to get in, an ideal girl a boy wants to marry, and a political cause a person strives for, etc. If the reality is far from the aspiration, the person experiences strain. Another example might be from rural China.A young woman aspiring to equal opportunity and equal treatment may have to live within the traditional and Confucian reality, exemplified by her family and village, which interferes with that goal. The larger the discrepancy between aspiration and reality, the greater the strain will be. Strain Source 3: Relative Deprivation In the situation where an extremely economically poor individual realizes some other people of the same or similar background are leading a much better life, the person experiences deprivation strain. The two conflicting social facts are one’s own miserable life and the perceived richness of comparative others. A person living in absolute poverty, where there is no comparison with others, does not necessarily feel bad, miserabl e, or deprived.On the other hand, if the same poor person understands that other people like him/her live a better life, he or she may feel deprived because of these circumstances. In an economically polarized society where the rich and poor live geographically close to each other, people are more likely to feel this discrepancy. In today’s rural China, television, newspaper, magazines, and radio have brought home to rural youths how relatively affluent urban life is. Additionally, those young people who went to work in the cities (dagong) and returned to the village during holidays with luxury materials and exciting stories make the relative deprivation even more realistically perceived. Increased perception of deprivation indicates relatively greater strain for individuals. Strain Source 4: Deficient CopingFacing a life crisis, some individuals are not able to cope with it, and then they experience coping strain. The two conflicting social facts are life crisis and the appr opriate coping capacity. All people who have experienced crises do not experience strain. A crisis may be a pressure or stress in daily life, and those individuals who are not able to cope with the crisis have strain. Such crises as loss of money, loss of status, loss of face, divorce, death of a loved one, etc. may lead to serious strain in the person who does not know how to cope with these negative life events. A high school boy who is constantly bullied and ridiculed by peers may experience great strain if he does not know how to deal with the situation.Likewise, a Chinese rural young woman who is frequently wronged by her mother-in-law may have strain if she is not psychologically ready to cope with a different situation by seeking support from other family members and the village. The less capable the coping skills, the stronger the strain when a crisis takes place. [edit] ReferencesO'Grady W. (2011). â€Å"Crime in Canadian Context. † Strain/anomie theory 92-94 Agnew, R. (1992). â€Å"Foundation for a General Strain Theory. † Criminology 30(1), 47-87 Agnew, R. & White, H. (1992). â€Å"An Empirical Test of General Strain Theory. † Criminology 30(4): 475-99. Agnew, R. (1997). â€Å"The Nature and Determinants of Strain: Another Look at Durkheim and Merton. † Pp. 7-51 in The Future of Anomie Theory, edited by R. Agnew and N. Passas. Boston: Northeastern University Press. Agnew, R. (2009). â€Å"Revitalizing Merton: General Strain Theory. † Advances in Criminological Theory: The Origins of American Criminology, Volume 16, edited by F. T. Cullen, F. Adler, C. L. Johnson, and A. J. Meyer. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. Akers, R. (2000). Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application. Los Angeles: Roxbury. Cloward, R. (1959). â€Å"Illegitimate Means, Anomie and Deviant Behavior. † American Sociological Review 24(2): 164- 76. Cloward, R. & Ohlin, L. (1960). Delinquency and Opportunity. NY: Free Pr ess. Cohen, A. (1955). Delinquent Boys.NY: Free Press. Cohen, A. (1965). â€Å"The Sociology of the Deviant Act: Anomie Theory and Beyond. † American Sociological Review 30: 5-14. Cohen, A. (1977). â€Å"The Concept of Criminal Organization. † British Journal of Criminology 17: 97-111. Dubin, R. (1959) â€Å"Deviant Behavior and Social Structure: Continuities in Social Theory. † American Sociological Review 24:147-163. Durkheim, E. (1897/1997). Suicide. NY: Free Press. Featherstone, R. & Deflem, M. (2003). â€Å"Anomie and Strain: Context and Consequences of Merton's Two Theories. † Sociological Inquiry 73(4):471-489. Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of Delinquency. Berkeley: University of California Press.Marwah, Sanjay, and Mathieu Deflem. 2006. †Revisiting Merton: Continuities in the Theory of Anomie-and-Opportunity-Structures. † Pp. 57-76 in Sociological Theory and Criminological Research: Views from Europe and the United States, ed. M. Deflem. Amsterdam: Elsevier/JAI Press. Messner, S ; Rosenfeld, R. (1994). Crime and the American Dream. Belmont: Wadsworth. Polk, K. (1969). â€Å"Class, Strain and Rebellion Among Adolescents. † Social Problems 17: 214-24. Polk, K. , ; Schafer, W. (eds. ). (1972). Schools and Delinquency. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Agnew, Robert. 2006. â€Å"General Strain Theory: Current Status and Directions for Further Research. † Pp. 01-123 in Taking Stock: The Status of Criminological Theory-Advances in Criminological Theory, edited by F. T. Cullen, J. P. Wright, and K. Blevins. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. Durkheim, Emile. 1951. Suicide: A Study in Sociology. New York: Free Press (Original work published in 1897). IOM, (Institute of Medicine). 2002. Reducing suicide: An American imperative. Washington, D. C. : National Academy Press. Mann, J. J. , C. Waternaux, G. L. Haas, and K. M. Malone. 1999. â€Å"Toward a clinical model of suicidal behavior in psychiatric patients. à ¢â‚¬  American Journal of Psychiatry 156:181-189. Merton, R. K. 1957. Social Theory and Social Structure, rev. ed. New York: Free Press. NIMH. 2003.Research on Reduction and Prevention of Suicidality: National Institute of Mental Health. Phillips, Michael R, Gonghuan Yang, Yanping Zhang, L. Wang, H. Ji, and M. Zhou. 2002. â€Å"Risk factors for suicide in China: a national case-control psychological autopsy study. † The Lancet 360:1728-1736. Spitzer, R. L. , J. B. W. Williams, M. Gibbon, and A. B. First. 1988. Instruction Manual for the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R (SCID, 6/1/88 Revision). New York: Biometrics Research Department, New York State Psychiatric Institute. Zhang, Jie. 2010. â€Å"Marriage and Suicide among Chinese Rural Young Women. † Social Forces 89:311-326. Zhang, Jie, Nini Dong, Robert Delprino, and Li Zhou. 2009. Psychological Strains Found From In-Depth Interviews With 105 Chinese Rural Youth Suicides. † Archives of Suicide Resea rch 13:185 – 194. Zhang, Jie and Shenghua Jin. 1998. â€Å"Interpersonal relations and suicide ideation in China. † Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs 124:79-94. Zhang, Jie and David Lester. 2008. â€Å"Psychological Tensions Found in Suicide Notes: A Test for the Strain Theory of Suicide. † Archives of Suicide Research 12:67-73. Zhang, Jie, William F. Wieczorek, Yeates Conwell, and Xin Ming Tu. 2011. â€Å"Psychological strains and youth suicide in rural China. † Social Science & Medicine 72:2003-2010. Zhang, Jie. 2000. â€Å"Gender differences in athletic performance and their

American Gothic Architecture

For only the antique style of architecture is conceived in a purely objective spirit; the Gothic style is more in the subjective spirit. American Gothic architecture was the outcome of a way of thought, the product of a special kind of imagination. Every one will easily be able to see clearly how from the fundamental thought and the peculiarities of Gothic architecture, there arises that mysterious and hyperphysical character which is attributed to it. It principally arises from the fact that here the arbitrary has taken the place of the purely rational, which makes itself known as the thorough adoption of the means to the end.The many things that are really aimless, but yet are so carefully perfected, raise the assumption of unknown, unfathomed, and secret ends, i. e. , give the appearance of mystery. On the other hand, the brilliant side of Gothic churches is the interior; because here the effect of the groined vaulting borne by slender, crystalline, aspiring pillars, raised high a loft, and, all burden having disappeared, promising eternal security, impresses the mind; while most of the faults which have been mentioned lie upon the outside.In antique buildings the external side is the most advantageous, because there we see better the support and the burden; in the interior, on the other hand, the flat roof always retains something depressing and prosaic. For the most part, also, in the temples of the ancients, while the outworks were many and great, the interior proper was small. An appearance of sublimity is gained from the hemispherical vault of a cupola, as in the Pantheon, of which, therefore, the Italians also, building in this style, have made a most extensive use.What determines this is, that the ancients, as southern peoples, lived more in the open air than the northern nations who have produced the Gothic style of architecture. Whoever, then, absolutely insists upon Gothic architecture being accepted as an essential and authorized style may, if he i s also fond of analogies, regard it as the negative pole of architecture, or, again, as its minor key.With the recent explosion of Gothic criticism, scholars have failed to juxtapose Gothic novels and dramas with archival architectural sources to explore the interrelationship between literature and architecture in the United States in the first half of the nineteenth century. The scholars who have rescued the Gothic novel from literary history's dust heap have provided cultural historians with a base from which to examine the sweeping influence of this significant literary genre.In the United States, Gothic novels and Scott's historical romances (which were inspired by Gothic pioneers Walpole and Radcliffe), had an enormous impact on architecture in the period between 1800 and 1850. The groundwork in Gothic literary scholarship allows us to move beyond literature to examine how the Gothic seeps into other forms of artistic creation. One of the earliest American architects to enjoy G othic novels was Benjamin Henry Latrobe (1764-1820).Although born in Great Britain and educated in Europe, Latrobe immigrated to the United States at the age of thirty-one, arriving in March 1796. About three months after relocating to Virginia, Latrobe wrote in his journal that he found Radcliffe's descriptions of buildings so â€Å"successful† that he â€Å"once endeavored to plan the Castle of Udolpho from Radcliffe's account of it and found it impossible† . Latrobe began experimenting with Gothic architectural forms for residential design in the United States in 1799.Latrobe's Gothic work includes Sedgeley (built for William Crammond near Philadelphia in 1799 and considered the first Gothic Revival house in the United States); the Baltimore Cathedral design (unexecuted; 1805); Christ Church in Washington, DC (1806-07); the Bank of Philadelphia (1807-08); and St. Paul's in Alexandria, Virginia (1817) (see photos). But, overall, Latrobe's Gothic output pales in compa rison to his rational neoclassical efforts such as the Bank of Pennsylvania (1799-1801). His Gothic Revival designs are symmetrical with superficial Gothic detailing.For example, Sedgeley is a geometric form Gothicized by the placement of pointed arch windows in the pavilions that protrude from the corners of the house. Despite this Gothic touch, there is little mystery or surprise in store for the observer of Latrobe's Gothic creations. Although he clearly read Radcliffe's books and was quite possibly influenced by them, he did not translate the mysterious, rambling architectural spaces of her stories into his own architecture. Other American architects, too, dabbled in Gothic Revival design before the 1830s. Some notable examples include Maxmillan Godefroy's St.Mary's Seminary in Baltimore (1806); Charles Bulfinch's Federal Street Church in Boston (1809); and the unexecuted design for Columbia College (1813) by James Renwick Sr. , engineer and father of the architect James Renwick . Daniel Wadsworth, who designed for himself a Gothic Revival villa called Monte Video (c. 1805-1809) near Hartford, Connecticut, explained that, to him, the Gothic style was not inherently menacing as are the castles and convents of Gothic novels: â€Å"There is nothing in the mere forms or embellishments of the pointed style [†¦ ] in the least adapted to convey to the mind the impression of Gothic Gloom† .His house bears out this belief; Gothic details appear as an afterthought, a decorative motif rather than a programmatic agenda. It was not until the 1830s and 1840s that American Gothic Revival architecture came of age. The most prominent designer of Gothic residences in this period was Davis. Davis was born in New York City in 1803 and, during his boyhood, lived in New Jersey and New York. When he was sixteen, he moved to Alexandria, Virginia, to learn a trade with his older brother Samuel. Davis worked as a type compositor in the newspaper office.Besides work, his four years at Alexandria were filled with two of his favourite activities: reading and acting. An amateur actor who performed in several plays while he was in Virginia, Davis was a voracious reader as well. His two pocket diaries from this period, preserved at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, are filled with youthful exuberance. Often, Davis would begin an entry with an illustration from a text, which would then be excerpted in his own handwriting. Among the dramas that he read and illustrated were Maturin's Bertram: or the Castle of St.Aidobrand and Heinrich Zschokke's Abadilino. Maturin was an Irish Gothic novelist and dramatist who corresponded with an encouraging Scott. After reading Maturin's drama Bertram, Scott wrote that the character of Bertram had a â€Å"Satanic dignity which is often truly sublime† . Starring Edmund Kean, Bertram opened on 9 May 1816 at the Drury Lane Theatre in London, with the support of Lord Byron, who was impressed with the play. In one of his pocket diaries, Davis made an illustration of the play's first act, showing a ship tossed on a stormy sea in view of a Gothic convent.The setting of the play is quintessentially Gothic from the â€Å"rock-based turrets† of the convent to the moonlit â€Å"terrassed rampart† of the castle of Aldobrand. Davis copied an excerpt from the play into his diary and as the budding actor included Bertram in his list of recitations. While he was a youth in Alexandria, Davis engaged in amateur theatricals and became interested in stage design. He dreamed of becoming a professional actor. Davis's illustration filters the Shakespearean scene through contemporary Gothic, emphasizing the mysterious flicker of the nightstand candle and the inky blackness of unknowable architectural spaces.At the age of twenty, Davis moved to New York City, and his fascination with the theatre continued. In the evenings, he frequented the theatre and was on the free list at both the Park The ater and the Castle Garden Theater in 1826 and 1828. He also expressed his love of drama in his artistic work. In 1825, he completed a study for a proscenium featuring Egyptian columns and Greek bas-relief sculpture and numerous portraits of actors in character, including â€Å"Brutus in the Rostrum† and â€Å"Mr. Kemble as Roma†. That so early in his life Davis was fascinated with the theatre is significant to his later Gothic Revival architectural creations.The dramatic images he drew for his youthful diaries display his acute interest in stage design and scenography. Indeed, Gothic Revival architecture is inherently theatrical, a quality often commented upon by architecture critics. Davis often used trompe-l'oeil materials to create theatrical effects, substituting plaster for stone. Davis's houses, then, become stage sets, in which the owners' mediaeval fantasies, inspired by Gothic romances, can take flight. While still in Alexandria, Davis's sensible older brothe r bristled at what he perceived to be the younger Davis's useless pastime of reading Gothic books.Later in life, Davis wrote to William Dunlap about himself in the third person for Dunlap's History of the Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in the United States: â€Å"Like another Franklin, strongly addicted to reading, he limited himself to the accomplishment of a fixed task, and being a quick compositor, he would soon complete it, and fly to his books, but not like Franklin, to books of science and useful learning, but to works of imagination, poetry, and the drama; whence, however, he imbibed a portion of that high imaginative spirit so necessary to constitute an artist destined to practise in the field of invention†.Davis's brother condemned such reading and turned Davis's attention to â€Å"history, biography and antiquities, to language and the first principles of the mathematics†. The architectural allure of Gothic literature fascinated Davis. As a young man , Davis was known to â€Å"pass hours in puzzling over the plan of some ancient castle of romance, arranging the trap doors, subterraneous passages, and drawbridges, as pictorial embellishment was the least of his care, invention all his aim†.Any Gothic novel of the late eighteenth century may have been the subject of his artistic dreaming, but most likely he is referring here to either Walpole's The Castle of Otranto or Radcliffe's The Mysteries of Udolpho, two of the most popular and influential of the Gothic novels. Davis's catalogue of books shows that he owned both books. The image depicts a partly ruinous labyrinthine space with a multitude of pointed arches leading to mysterious staircases (perhaps inspired by Giovanni Battista Piranesi's Carceri). Light filters in through barred windows.This drawing shows his early interest in the Gothic underworld, which is described in detail in The Castle of Otranto. The castle of Otranto (see photo) contains intricate subterranean passages that lead from the castle to the church of St. Nicholas, and through which the virtuous Isabella is chased by the lustful Manfred. Scott cannot be considered a Gothic novelist in the same way that his predecessors Walpole and Radcliffe are. Scott's genre is historical romance, but the influence of the Gothic is omnipresent in his work.From his earliest days and throughout his life, Scott read tales of terror. In 1812, after the success of his three poems and before he began writing his Waverley novel series, Scott purchased 110 acres, upon which he built his elaborate Gothic castle (1812-1815; enlarged in 1819). He named his new home Abbotsford after the monks of Meirose Abbey. The architect was William Atkinson. Abbotsford has been described as â€Å"an asymmetrical pile of towers, turrets, stepped gables, oriels, pinnacles, crenelated parapets, and clustered chimney stacks, all assembled with calculated irregularity†.Visitors flocked to Abbotsford to see the autho r and his residence first-hand, and, according to Thomas Carlyle, Abbotsford soon â€Å"became infested to a great degree with tourists, wonder-hunters, and all that fatal species of people†. Architectural historians often praise Strawberry Hill for introducing asymmetry into British domestic design and historicism into the Gothic Revival. But it is also important for another reason: the castle inspired Walpole to write his Gothic novel The Castle of Otranto in 1764.In A Description of the Villa of Mr. Horace Walpole, Walpole writes that Strawberry Hill is â€Å"a very proper habitation of, as it was the scene that inspired, the author of The Castle of Otranto†. One June morning, Walpole awoke from a dream: â€Å"I had thought myself in an ancient castle (a very natural dream for a head filled, like mine, with Gothic story) and that, on the uppermost bannister of a great staircase, I saw a gigantic hand in armor† (Early 88). That evening, Walpole sat down to wri te The Castle of Otranto.The setting of the story, as Walpole tells us in the preface, is â€Å"undoubtedly laid in some real castle†; indeed, as W. S. Lewis has shown, the rooms at Strawberry Hill and those in the pages of The Castle of Otranto correspond. Read by British and American readers alike, The Castle of Otranto enjoyed popularity long after Walpole's death in 1797. About the castle, Gilmor wrote: Tis in the most beautiful Gothic (light) style. Much cut up into small rooms, none, except the long picture gallery being large. Some of the ceilings beautifully gilded others beautifully fitted in wood or scagliola.But all things, wainscottings, – door-fireplaces – all Gothic. [†¦ ] These same rooms crammed – most literally crammed – with chef d'oeuvres of Antient and modern paintings, statuary; sarcophaguses, Bronzes and silver carvings of Benvenuto Cellini and others. [†¦ ] In this superb cabinet of curiosities for such the Gothic c astle deserves to be called, I strolled delighted. On 21 September 1832, not long after Gilmor's return in late 1830 or early 1831, Scott died. Two weeks later, on 5 October 1832, Davis makes his first notes on Glen Ellen in his day book.Perhaps Gilmor may have conceived of Glen Ellen as a tribute or romantic memorial to his genial host at Abbotsford. Indeed, as William Pierson has shown, the plans of Abbotsford and Glen Ellen both display a progression from left to right of octagonal corner turret to octagonal bay to square corner tower. But Abbotsford is not the only source for Glen Ellen. Gilmor was very impressed with the rococo Gothic he saw at Strawberry Hill, and the interior decoration of Walpole's residence becomes the inspiration for the exterior ornamentation at Glen Ellen.The battlements, pinnacles, towers, and pointed arch windows all recall Strawberry Hill, and the long rectangular parlour mirrors Walpole's mediaeval gallery. Both Abbotsford and Strawberry Hill are sit ed along rivers; it is significant, then, that Gilmor chose a site for Glen Ellen on the Gunpowder River, twelve miles north of Baltimore. While Town, Davis, and Gilmor were clearly indebted to Walpole and Atkinson, Glen Ellen is quite unlike anything that had come before it in American architecture.Most striking is its adoption of the complete Gothic program: it is asymmetrical in plan and elevation; its rooms are of disproportionate sizes; its ornamentation is both whimsical and reliant on recognizable mediaeval architectural forms. Glen Ellen is certainly not a repetition of Benjamin Henry Latrobe's and Daniel Wadsworth's earlier forays into the Gothic Revival style for domestic architecture. Unlike Sedgeley and Monte Video, where Gothic Revival ornament appears as an afterthought, Glen Ellen wears its mediaeval styling in a more assertive manner.Here Town and Davis enlisted the picturesque element of surprise; the beholder of Glen Ellen views a shifting facade with unexpected to wer protrusions and heavily ornamented bay windows. Although light and airy Glen Ellen lacks the gloom of Radcliffe's architectural spaces, the architects do create a villa in which the element of surprise is paramount. What is most significant about Glen Ellen is its conception as a place of fantasy, a literary indulgence to whet the Gothic appetite of its well-travelled owner.That Glen Ellen imitates the facade of Abbotsford or the interior ornamentation of Strawberry Hill is important; but more momentous is the idea of Glen Ellen as a retreat into the mediaeval world popularized by Gothic novels and historical romances. But Glen Ellen is Gothic fiction transformed into stone, a constant reminder of its owner's preferred reading material. With Glen Ellen, Gilmor pays homage to his favourite writers, thus participating in the cult of the Gothic author. Although he is the first, Gilmor will not be the last to yield to his literary fantasies by creating a permanent reminder of his Go thic passion.Influenced by Gothic novels and historical romance s, American writers James Fenimore Cooper and Washington Irving Gothicized their houses (Otsego Hall and Sunnyside, respectively) after visiting Gothic sites in Europe. After Glen Ellen, Davis went on to design numerous Gothic Revival cottages and villas, including his masterpiece, Lyndhurst in Tarrytown, New York (1838; 1865). Why were American architects, artists, and their clients so interested in mediaeval architecture? Their reading habits tell us a great deal.Mediaeval architecture plays a crucial role in Gothic novels and historical romances, leading some curious readers to visit mediaeval and Gothic Revival architectural sites related to their favourite novels. That American Gothic Revival architecture was closely related to the fictional works of writers such as Radcliffe and Scott is highlighted by a nineteenth-century observer's comments on a Gothic Revival building in New York City. Thomas Aldrich Bailey wro te in 1866 about the University of the City of New York (now New York University; original building demolished) on Washington Square: â€Å"There isn't a more gloomy structure outside of Mrs.Radcliff's [sic] romances, and we hold that few men could pass a week in these lugubrious chambers, without adding a morbid streak to their natures – the genial immates [sic] to the contrary notwithstanding†. Usually, though, the Gothic Revival buildings constructed in the United States in this period were anything but gloomy. Like Strawberry Hill, Davis's designs were light and airy; delicate rather than dark and massive (Davis does begin to experiment more with fortified castle designs in the 1850s).As Janice Schimmelman has argued, Scott's novels recast the Gothic architectural style, moving it away from the barbarism associated with the Middle Ages and toward a more domestic ideal. An American author who wrote at the same time as Scott sums it up nicely by saying, â€Å"A cast le without a ghost is fit for nothing but to live in†. Certain Gothic work in the Boston neighborhood, by Solomon Willard and Gridley Bryant, has a kind of brutal power because of its simple granite treatment.But these early gray and lowering edifices, despite their pointed windows and their primitive tracery, are scarcely within the true Gothic tenor. That remained almost unknown in this country until suddenly, between 1835 and 1850, it was given abundant expression in the work of three architects -Richard Upjohn, James Renwick, and Minard Lafever. Upjohn, in Trinity Church, set a tradition for American church architecture which has hardly died yet; and Renwick, in Grace Church in New York (see photo), showed the exquisite richness that Gothic could give.Minard Lafever's work is more daring, more original, and less correct, but in the Church of the Holy Trinity in Brooklyn (see photo), only slightly later than Trinity and Grace, he achieved a combination of lavish detail, ima ginative variations on Gothic themes, and a general effectiveness of proportion and composition which make it one of the most successful, as it is certainly the most American, of all these early Gothic Revival churches.Yet even in these, correct as they were in detail, beautiful in mass and line, there was always a certain sense of unreality. The old tradition of integrity in structure, on which the best Greek Revival architects had so insistently based their work, was breaking down. Romanticism, with its emphasis on the effect and its comparative lack of interest in how the effect was produced, was sapping at the whole integral basis of architecture.These attractive Gothic churches were, all of them, content with lath-and-plaster vaults. In them the last connections between building methods and building form disappeared, and in their very success they did much to establish in America the disastrous separation between engineering and architecture which was to curse American building for two generations.The best of the American Gothic work remains in its simpler, its less ostentatious, monuments: the little churches in which wood was allowed frankly to be itself, as in the small frame chapels which Upjohn designed for country villages and distant mission stations; and the frank carpenter Gothic of the picturesque high-gabled cottages which rose so bewitchingly embowered in heavy trees along many of our Eastern village streets. The polychrome Victorian Gothic of England also became a brief American fashion.A number of architects, especially in New York and later in early Chicago, fell under the spell of Ruskin's persuasive writing, and sought as he did to create a modern, freely designed, inventive, nineteenth-century Gothic. But here also the strings that bound America and England seemed too tenuous to hold for long; and in spite of the occasional appealing successes of the style – such as the old National Academy of Design with its black-and-white marbl e front, designed by Peter B.Wight, and some of Renwick's city houses – the Victorian Gothic was doomed in America to swift disintegration into the cheapest and most illogical copying of its most obvious mannerisms, and a complete negation of its essential foundations. It became in a sense a caricature, to be rapidly swallowed up in the confusion of eclecticism which the last quarter of the century brought with it. If we might sum up French Gothic as architecture of clear and structural power, and English as the architecture of personalized rural charm, American Gothic would be the architecture of experimental and dynamic zest.American Gothic architecture was much more than the solution of building problems; it was also the expression of a new America that had been gradually coming into being – a new America which was the result of the gradual decay of the feudal system under the impact of trade, prosperity, and the growth of national feeling. The Gothic Revival in Ame rica was more a matter of intellectual approach than of architectural work. The sudden new enthusiasm for medieval work made all America passionately aware of its amazing architectural wealth, and also acutely conscious of the disintegration which threatened ruin to so many of the medieval structures.Nowhere did the Gothic Revival have a greater and a more revolutionary effect than in America, which had given it its first expression, for nowhere else were the forces behind it so irresistibly strong. In Germany, nationalism had led the architects of the romantic age into the byways of Romanesque and of Renaissance. In France, the strong classic traditions of the Ecole des Beaux Arts held firm against all the attacks of the romanticists and gave, at least to the official work, the requisite classic stamp.But, in America, religious fervor, so closely allied to the desires of the court and the government, made the drive toward Gothic design irrepressible, and there was no academic and c lassic tradition powerful enough to withstand it. Furthermore, the movement was blessed with extremely brilliant and articulate writers, who had the gift not only of interesting the specialist but of moving the general population. Gothic architecture was best now because it was the most Christian, later because it was the most creative and least imitative, then again because it was the most honest – whatever that might mean.The religious facets of the movement had an even greater importance. The whole American church was exercised more and more about the fundamental problems of ritualism and historical tradition. The most important ecclesiastical thinkers were reacting against the routine secularism of the eighteenthcentury church, demanding not only greater seriousness and a more intense devotion to Christian ideals, but also expressing their conviction that the medieval church had been a vital force and medieval devotion a vivid experience that had been subsequently lost, a nd that therefore the easiest way to reform the church was by a return to medievalism.Of the religious controversies these ideas aroused it is not necessary to particularize. Also important is the fact that everywhere these religious controversies focused attention on medieval church architecture, and that there was the closest relationship between architecture and ritual. Therefore, the theory went, if it was necessary to return to the medieval conception of Christianity, it was equally essential to return to medievalism in church design. There more subtle factor behind the Gothic Revival in architecture.The word â€Å"romanticism† has accumulated so many different meanings in the course of a century of criticism that it is necessary to be more precise. Behind the new interest in medieval architecture went a search for emotional expression which was a new thing. Romanticism means many more things than mere antiquarianism, for from the point of view of a mere turn to the past the Classic Revivals might also be considered romantic; but, as we have seen, the architects of the Classic Revival were striving primarily for form which should be serene, well composed, consistent, harmonious, adequate.The true romanticist is not satisfied with this. He demands more; he demands that architecture shall be â€Å"expressive† – that is, that it shall aim definitely at expressing specific emotions such as religious awe, grandeur, gaiety, intimacy, sadness. He seeks to make architecture as expressive and as personal as a lyric poem, and oftentimes this demand for emotional expression he makes superior to any other claims.All architecture is expressive; but, whereas the classic architect allows the expression to arise naturally from forms developed in the common-sense solution of his problem, the true romantic seeks expression first, with a definite self-conscious urge. To the romantic architect of the mid-nineteenth century, Romanesque and Gothic had some how come to seem more emotional than the other styles. References Andrews, Wayne. American Gothic: Its Origins, Its Trials. Its Triumphs. New York: Random House, 1975. Donoghue, John.Alexander Jackson Davis, Romantic Architect, 1803-1892. New York: Arno Press, 1982. Dunlap, William. â€Å"History of the Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in the United States. 1834. † Vol. 3. Ed. Alexander Wyckoff. New York: Benjamin Blom, 1965. Early, James. Romanticism and American Architecture. New York: A. S. Barnes, 1965. Latrobe, Benjamin Henry. â€Å"The Virginia Journais of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795-1798. † Vol. 1. Ed. Edward C. Carter II. New Haven: Yale UP, 1977. Lougy, Robert E. Charles Robert Maturin. Lewisburg: Bucknell UP, 1975.Pierson, William H. , Jr. American Buildings and Their Architects: Technology and the Picturesque, The Corporate and the Early Gothic Styles. 1978. Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1980. Robertson, Fiona. Legitimate Histories: Scott; Gothic, and the Authorities of Fiction. Oxford: Clarendon, 1994. Schimmelman, Janice Gayle. The Spirit of the Gothic: The Gothic Revival House in Nineteenth-Century America. Diss. U of Michigan, 1980. Snadon, Patrick. A. J. Davis and the Gothic Revival Castle in America, 1832-1865. Diss. Cornell U, 1988.

Airline industry analysis by Porter’s Five Forces Essay

The Airline industry provides a very unique service to its customers. It transports people with a high level of convenience and efficiency that cannot not be provided by any other industry or substitute. Airline companies pride themselves on the way they treat their customer during the flight. They have things such as food, drinks, entertainment, and a welcoming staff. The service of transportation is provided in other industries but the airline surpasses all of them when it comes to timeliness. The geographic scope of the airline industry is at a global level. Some firms are able to fly their planes all over the world while others focus on smaller geographic areas. The five forces model is one way to answer the first basic question in strategic management; â€Å"Why are some industries more attractive than others?† This model shows the five forces that shape industry competition; threat of new entrants, bargaining power of buyers, threat of substitutes, bargaining power of suppliers, and competitors. In order to analyze the airline industry we have look at each of these forces. Bargaining power of Buyers The airline industry is made up of two groups of buyers. First, there are individual flyers. They buy plane tickets for a number of reasons that can be personal or business related. This group is extremely diverse; most people in developed countries have purchased a plane ticket. They can do this through the specific airline or through the second group of buyers; travel agencies and online portals. This buyer group works as a middle man between the airlines and the flyers. They work with multiple airline firms in order to give customers the best flight possible. Between these two groups there is definitely a large amount of buyers compared to the number of firms. There are low switching costs between firms because many people choose the flight based on where they are going and the cost at the time. This is some loyalty to firms but not enough for high switching costs. Each customer needs a lot of important information. They need to know the details of what  is provided during the flight. Buyers need to understand the timing of the flight and the safety aspects of flying in general. The service provided is unique. Each airline has a niche. Some airlines focus on cost, while others focus on having the best amenities, etc. Overall the bargaining power of buyers has an extremely low threat in this industry. Bargaining Power of Suppliers Next we look at the bargaining power of the suppliers. In this case the major suppliers are the airplane manufacturers. The top two manufacturers in the world currently are Boeing and Airbus(Odell,Mark). In this industry the inputs are extremely standardized. Airline companies only seem to differentiate with amenities. The planes are very similar. Currently some manufacturers are trying to make their plans more ecofriendly. Airline companies cannot easily switch suppliers. Most firms have long term contracts with their suppliers. Planes are such high capital products that firms probably make long term loan agreements and have more favorable credit terms when they don’t switch companies. It is difficult to enter into the plane manufacturing industry because of the capital needed to enter. The amount of money and expertise needed to make even one plane is around 200 million dollars. For this reason there are very few suppliers in the airline industry. Airline firms are the only source of income for these manufacturers so their business is extremely important. Based on these things the bargaining power of suppliers has a low threat as well. Threat of New Entrants Threat of new entrants is another major aspect of the five forces. This aspect has a low threat for the airline industry. There are two aspects that do however raise the threat level. First, there are extremely low switching costs. Second, there are no proprietary products or services involved. Even with these two aspects the industry still has a very low threat overall. Existing firms have a large cost advantage. This industry requires  a large amount of capital and without a strong customer base there will be little to no profit in the first few years. Existing firms can and will use their high capital to retaliate against newer firms with whatever means necessary such as lowering prices and taking a loss. Although there are low switching costs between brands, consumers tend to only chose well-known names. Airline tickets are expensive so people don’t want to give that money to firms they don’t trust. There is also a huge safety aspect involved and most consumers feel safer with firms that have been around for a long period of time. This industry requires plane and flying experience which also lowers the threat of entry. When firms decide to enter the market they first have to become licensed which can take about a year. After that they are constantly being regulated by several organizations such as the Federal Aviation Administration and the Department of Transportation. The time and money spend to solely open an airline company is enough to prevent most people from entering the industry. Threat of Substitutes After looking at the threat of entry it is important to also consider the threat of substitutes. This industry has a medium substitute risk level. There are substitutes in the airline industry. Consumers can choose other form of transportation such as a car, bus, train, or boat to get to their destination. There is however a cost to switch. Some means of transportation can be more costly than a plane ticket. The main cost is time. Planes are by far the fastest form of transportation available. Airlines surpass all other forms of transportation when it comes to cost, convenience, and sometimes service. Consumers do sometimes choose other methods for various reasons such as cost if they are not traveling very far which raises the risk. Rivalry among Existing Players The last area of the five forces is the rivalry among existing players. The rivalry in the airline industry is very intense for many reasons. The industry is currently very stagnant. It seems to be in the mature stage of the business cycle. The number of competitors stays the same in the long run  and it doesn’t seem to be under or over capacitated. The fixed costs are extremely high in this industry. This makes it hard to leave the industry because they are probably in long term loan agreements in order to stay in business. The products involved or the planes are highly complex which also heightens the competition. The competition is lessened by the brand identities of different firms. For example, Jetblue is known for its amenities and Southwest is known for its low prices. The market share seemed to be equally distributed because each company has its own part of the market and because switching costs are low none of the firms can really hold a large percentage of the market. The strongest forces in this industry are the competition of existing firms and the power of suppliers. The rivalry of existing players is high and will push out any firm that doesn’t have enough capital. Suppliers are strong forces because planes are so costly to make. If the suppliers changed the credit terms by even a small amount it could mean a significant loss for the firm. On the other hand the other forces involved seem to have a weak threat. It is costly and time consuming to enter the market which lowers the risk of entry. Buyers have a weak force because of the low switching costs and substitutes are weak because they are usually too costly. The profit in this industry is high because for most people flying in necessary. It is not a trend which makes this industry profitable for the long term. Airlines that are more profitable are in a better position because they usually have more planes and a larger variety of flights which provides further convenience for the consumer. Recently there have been some changes in some of the forces. Some airplane manufacturers have been making ecofriendly planes, which is a change in the bargaining power of suppliers. This would differentiate the products, raising the threat of suppliers. Another recent change is the use of web portals such as Expedia to book flights. This positive change creates a whole new group of buyers and makes purchasing flights faster and easier. The increase in gas prices has also been a positive change for the industry  because it lessens the power of substitutes. People are more willing to fly to their destination if driving would be more expensive. After looking at the Five Forces Model firms should make dealing with the competition their main priority. The other areas in the model seem to have an overall low threat so existing firms don’t have to focus on those areas as much in their business strategy. Now that we have brought you through our Porter’s Five Force analysis, the last thing that is important to consider when exploring an industry, are the dominant economic features. The next section of our report will give you an overview of what features affect the airline industry most.

Exam 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

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SOP Paper - Essay Example No doubt, extreme sports are a major attraction for sport lovers and can garner huge revenues, but there are numerous examples of sportspersons getting injured or maimed for life. One can never forget the snowboarder Kevin Pearce who suffered a traumatic brain injury when he was preparing for the Olympics in 2009. Therefore, my opinion is that extreme sports can be very dangerous for the sportsmen. For some people, extreme kinds of sports can be very tempting and they find it difficult to overcome the urge to participate in life risking sports. According to a sports consultant, Justin Anderson, some people have this innate sense of thrill that makes them do dangerous activities like jumping out of airplanes or climbing Mt. Everest (Hatfield, 2011). The question then arises is what is the thing that motivates these people to take part in such activities in spite of knowing the associated risks. It has been found that for these sportsmen, reaching the desired target is the primary factor while competition is the secondary factor. For these people, pushing their personal boundaries is a strong motivator although the fact that they are risking their life is always at the back of their minds. One common psychology behind these daredevil sports is the feeling that they have dared to dream the impossible and are also among those few who have achieved that dream (Hatfield, 2011). Extreme sports usually comprise high speed and risk. While both these elements can be thrilling for the youth because of their tendency toward heroism, the fact remains that such thrills are associated with extreme dangers that can be either fatal or lifelong disability. Since extreme sportsmen remain more excited to perform the perilous activities, most of the times they remain concerned about the event that will take place in that instant like how well they will be able to perform and

Planning Ethics Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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ASCE INFRASTRUCTURE REPORT CARD - Essay Example All through the 20th Century, the nation’s leaders imagined large scale infrastructure plans that stirred the public and added to unprecedented financial growth. Much of that infrastructure is approaching the ending of its design life, and there are increasing problems with worsening across all public infrastructures. In order to build an infrastructure to serve the desires of the new century, there must be bold leadership and a convincing vision. We have to be certain to maintain and preserve the foundations that previous generations have set up for us. A new overarching advance is desired. The approval of the State’s surface transportation is an outstanding place to begin. From the above assertions, I believe that the consent is supposed to spotlight on four goals for the surface transportation: Sustainability, resiliency, and ongoing upholding must be an essential part of improving the state’s face transportation system. Since infrastructure is built or transformed, life-cycle cost analysis is supposed be performed to account for early construction, running, preservation, environmental, safety, as well as other costs sensibly expected during the life of the project, like as recovery before disruption by or manmade hazards or

GCC Economics and OPEC Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

GCC Economics and OPEC - Research Paper Example The common market agreement among the GCC countries took effect from 1 January 2008. The members of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is an association of developing countries, which include Venezuela, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Nigeria, Libya, Kuwait, Iraq, Iran, Ecuador, Angola and Algeria. OPEC was formed to help market oil and stabilize oil prices in the world. United Arab Emirates United Arab Emirates whose capital city is Abu Dhabi, Dubai covers an area of 82,880 Km2 and the land is predominantly desert with few pockets of agricultural areas. It is a member of OPEC. The country has an opened and highly developed economy, which is among the fastest growing in the world. The rate of inflation in United Arab Emirates is low and was 0.9 percent and 1.6 percent in 2010 and 2009 respectively. To boost trade, a free trade zone for manufacturing and distribution purposes. Presence of a deep-water port has also promoted international trade. The rate of interest charged by commercial banks was also lower at 6.2 percent and 5.9 percent in 2010 and 2009 respectively. Figure 1: GDP growth rate There was a sharp decline in the real GDP growth from 3.2 percent in 2008 to -3.2 in 2009. Sharp decline is attributed to the global financial turmoil. However, there was a strong growth in real GDP growth rate to 5.3 percent in 2010 due to recovering economy and increasing oil prices. OPEC Quotas in United Arab Emirates is 2.3 million barrels daily but its capacity is 2.8 million barrels daily. According to CIA (2011), United Arab Emirates’ reserves are estimated to be 97.8 billion barrels. Non- oil sectors include agriculture that produce dried fish, dates, watermelons, vegetables, eggs, poultry and dairy products (Department of State 2011). Non-oil sector covers tourism and international finance. United Arab Emirates produces cement, aluminum, fertilizers, boat building, commercial ship repair, textiles and handicrafts. Major trade pa rtners include Japan, India, China, United States, Germany, Iran, South Korea and Thailand Saudi Arabia Kingdom of Saudi Arabia whose capital is Riyadh also referred to as Saudi Arabia covers an area of 2,149,690 km2 with arid climate. It is a member of OPEC. It has a command economy, where government controls major economic activities and depends heavily on oil exports. The GDP of Saudi Arabia was $623 billion in 2010. Inflation rate is slightly lower at 5.4 percent and 5.1 percent in 2010 and 2009 respectively. The unemployment rate in Saudi Arabia was 10.8 percent, 10.5 percent and 9.8 percent in 2010, 2009 and 2008 respectively. High unemployment rates are among the highest rates in the gulf region. Commercial bank interest rates were 7.3 percent and 7.2 percent in 2010 and 2009 respectively. The country’s proven oil reserves are 262.6 billion barrels (Sfakianakis 2011). Saudi Arabia has the largest oil reserves with and is the world top oil exporter. Oil generates 75 per cent of the total budget revenues and comprises about 90 percent of total exports. Increase in oil prices caused by increasing demand has improved the economy of Saudi Arabia. The current quota for Saudi Arabia as set by OPEC is 9.4 million barrels daily. However, the country can produce up to 10.52 millions barrels daily. The non-oil sector real GDP growth r

Richard and the Battle of Bosworth Essay Example for Free

Richard and the Battle of Bosworth Essay On 22nd August 1485, King Richard III lost the Battle of Bosworth to Henry Tudor. One of the main reasons for him losing was due to his unpopularity with the people and his nobles. Richard was disliked by many of his nobles because he gave power to nobles from the north, which he knew, annoying the nobility in the south of England. This meant that in the battle he had little support, and some of his nobles, such as the Stanley’s fought for Henry. Richard was also disliked by the people of England. He seized the crown in 1483, and rumours spread that he killed his two nephews. This made him disliked, and few people supported him. Another reason Richard lost the Battle of Bosworth was because of the Stanley’s changing sides. The Stanley’s controlled around 6000 of Richards troops, around half of his overall army. Although the Stanley’s began the battle on the side of Richard, they changed during the battle. This meant that Richard has far fewer troops than he may have anticipated, and had the Stanley’s not changed sides, it is possible that Richard would have won. Many of Richards other nobles were also unreliable, such as Northumberland. He did not help Richard when he needed it, refusing to bring in Richards reserves, and eventually surrendering, giving Henry an advantage over Richard, helping him to win. Another reason Richard lost was because of the support Henry had from the King of France. In 1485, the King of France wanted to distract Richard from invading France, so he gave Henry an army to invade England. When Henry landed in Wales with these extra men, many people joined him on his march through Wales to Bosworth, increasing the size of his army greatly. Another factor leading to the defeat of Richard at the Battle of Bosworth was Richards’s hesitance on the battlefield. Richard did not take advantage by attacking Oxford whilst he was deploying his troops. This allowed Oxford to launch an attack on Norfolk, who was soon killed. Although Surrey takes command, Richard lost men fast. Richard was so hesitance because he was so unsure of his support. A final factor which lead to the defeat of Richard at the Battle of Bosworth was the growing mistrust for Richard. Many Yorkists became so unhappy with the situation in England that they looked elsewhere for help. Many of them turned to Henry, and supported him in training and creating an army for him to fight with. This support from people once loyal to Richard led to him losing the battle because he did not have enough people fight for him, as many people in England were behind Henry.

Motivating Business Students to the Entrepreneurial Sector

Motivating Business Students to the Entrepreneurial Sector An Empirical Study on Factors Motivating Business Students to Move to the Entrepreneurial Sector Abstract. This exploratory study is attempts to examine how employable individuals turn their focus to start-ups. Today, majority of employees still practise a more or less self-protective strategy. In this paper we would report on the results of an empirical study of factors motivating degreed potential employees to move to self enterprising. The deciding factors to become an entrepreneur and of sustainable employment-oriented factors to be analyzed in order to discover how they differ. Participants consisted of 200 students from Malaysia entered final year of business undergraduate and postgraduate programs. Self-administered questionnaires were used to gather data on factors and types of relationships influencing career choice and entrepreneurial intention. The results of the analysis will serve as a basis for the development of employment practices designed to support start-ups in adopting sustainable business practices. 1. Introduction Today, employees still act in accordance with employers legal obligations and try not to attract special attention from local independent business owners. This papers main aim is to take a fresh look into graduates expectation on the factors motivating employees when considering switching jobs if employed and to identify the level of interest as they commence and develop entrepreneurial ventures. The study principally examined why employees decide to become entrepreneurs, therefore, seven main issues associated with graduates enterprises as they established, operated and grew their businesses, these being chosen following a process of brainstorming with a pilot group of graduate entrepreneurs. 2. Review of Literature 2.1. Overview A number of researchers have attempted to consider factors such as gender, grade point average, duration and field of study and entrepreneurial family background as important factors affecting students perception and attitudes towards the prospect of new own business formation, and some of these factors clearly enhance or inhabit such tendency (Oakey, Mukhtar and Kipling, 2002). However, Cooper, Woo, and Dunkelberg (1989) suggested that the various objectives identified by other researchers can be reduced to three factors: challenge, wealth and autonomy. Using cluster analysis Woo, Cooper, and Dunkelberg (1991) identified two types of entrepreneurs depending upon their purposes at the time of commencing the business: firstly self-regulating who placed high priority on not having to work for others, and secondly, â€Å"company-men. who builds the organization. 2.2. Motivation Generation of start up ideas have been explored by a number of researchers. Opportunity recognition is dependent on whether the entrepreneur was extrinsically stimulated. A leading entrepreneurship text has recognised the â€Å"important implications for entrepreneurs who need to be creative in their thinking† and of the concept that creativity can be learned or enhanced (Timmons Spinelli, 2008). The three types of opportunities identification to the field of entrepreneurship as established by Sarasvathy, Dew, Velamuri, and Venkataraman (2003) are recognized, discovered and created. There are various motives to start a new venture. According to Amit, McCrimmon, Zietsma and Oesch (2001), money is important but not necessarily most important. They argue that some of the key non-monetary motives for starting up a business include the wish to be independent and the combination of work and household responsibilities. These start-up motives may have important consequences for the d egree of (over)optimism that characterizes (promising) entrepreneurs. For example, if an entrepreneur is mainly driven by wealth creation, it may be expected that (s)he is more likely to be disappointed if the turnover in the first year is relatively low. If the entrepreneur is driven by the wish to be independent, (s)he may be unpleasantly surprised by the strong reliance upon a limited number of clients or the bank. If the primary start-up motive is exploiting a perceived opportunity, the entrepreneur may be faced with other people who came up with the same idea or possibly an overestimated market demand for the (new) product. Gilad and Levine (1986), agreed in their analysis on intrinsic and extrinsic that there are discrimination between start-up motives. Intrinsic motives include the desire for independence and combining work with care for family members. Entrepreneurs who are driven by such motives will probably be less inclined to set unrealistically high pecuniary goals. Extrinsic motives include two categories: pull and push factors. An opportunity of perceived profit is an important pull factor of entrepreneurship, while (the threat of) unemployment is a well-known push factor. Regarding the exploitation of opportunities, Hayward, Shepherd and Griffin(2006) argue that overoptimistic founders will commit too many resources to the opportunities that are the bases of their ventures. If entrepreneurs are ‘blinded by their own ideas and fail to adequately assess the competition and the (potential) problems to transform the opportunity into a profitable venture, over optimism is around the corner. The creation of a new organization, however, is contingent upon the belief that self-employment promises more expected utility than either employment within an existing organization or unemployment (Douglas Shepherd, 2000; Van Praag Cramer, 2001). 3. Methodology Gartner (1989) proposed that a common limitation of studies into the predictors of entrepreneurial intentions is the failure of investigators to choose samples that are (1) comprised solely of people who are serious about entrepreneurship and (2) who are in the process of making the decision to become involved in creating a new business. Krueger, Reilly and Carsrud (2000) find that studies comprising samples of upper-division college students can uncover job-related preferences at a time when respondents are struggling with important career decisions. Therefore, it is acceptable and appropriate to investigate entrepreneurial intent utilizing a sample of upper-class college students. (Brice and Nelson, 2008), it is important to note that the population of interest in their study consists of individuals who perceive that they will become entrepreneurs and not necessarily only those who will actually become entrepreneurs. This difference is significant because while actions has been demonstrated to be predicted by intentions. Therefore, the focus of this research remains at the entrepreneurial intentions level of analysis. The sample chosen consists of postgraduate and undergraduate business degree program students who were nearing graduation. When students contemplate graduation, they may also develop immediate career plans and long-range goals. The respondents are those from the business disciplines because, based on their discipline interest, they have already decided to pursue business-related careers. For that reason, a homogeneous sampling of university college students was included in this study. In this study, we follow the method tested by Brice and Nelson. This study sample consisted of 200 students from University Colleges in Malaysia who participated utilizing a structured questionnaire data collection methodology. Subjects consisted of final (3rd) year business undergraduates and final year Master of Business Administration (MBA) students in the concentrations of management. They were appropriate primarily because their academic concentration implied that they had serious interest in pursuing a business career. The main themes covered by the survey questions include firm and owner characteristics; interest to start-up; motivation to switch jobs; career preferred timing and industry; medium for seeking employment: desire and likelihood of rewards and opportunity; criteria of choosing employers. The two researchers contacted students directly via targeted groups of respondents list originating from the Faculty of their academic major program. Five questions adapted from Chen, Greene, and Crick (1998) was used to assess start up intentions. Responses were gathered on a 5-point Likert scale and total scale score was obtained by averaging the five questions. Brice and Nelson have reported a Cronbachs alpha of 0.92 for this scale, which implies strong reliability. Information pertaining to each respondents age, gender, and class was obtained to use as control variables in the analysis. Each of these control variables was recorded as non-continuous, categorical predictors. 4. Analysis and Results Once all the related information from the respondents was entirely obtained, the students motives leading to start-up were analyzed. From the mean of all motivation constructs, it could be argued that the main motive for start-up is the need for achievement (average value = 14.3), followed by economic reasons (mean value = 12.89) and the need for independence (average value = 12.89). In order to establish instrument reliability, Cronbachs coefficient alpha was computed. The reliability coefficient was 0.71 which indicates that the instrument was reliable in its measurement of determinants for start ups. Data reduction technique is used to unfold the information embedded in our data. Hypothesis 1: Intention for independent business start-ups is higher than joining established firms After elimination of subjects with survey questionnaires were only partially completed, the final sample totalled 196 students. As shown in Table 2, this sample was equally represented between the genders, consisting of 107 (54.6%) males and 89 (45.4%) females. Subjects were primarily graduating undergraduate business students (65.8%) and graduating postgraduate students (34.2%). In fact, there were 129 bachelor degree students who aged below 25 years than MBA students who aged 26 and above. The majority of subjects were expecting salary between RM5001- RM15000 (56.2%) which is not in accordance or earnable with employment even in established firms. Since the mean, median and mode values are very close to each other, it shows the data is symmetrical. The mean for the 196 students is 2.08 with a standard deviation of 1.088. The Trimmed mean value of 2.01 is similar to the mean above. Hence, shows there are no outliers in the data set. In this survey, since the sample size is 196, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test is used. The p-value of the test is less than 0.001. Hence, the data is not distributed normal. Of the 196 students, 77 (39.3%) very enthusiastic towards start-ups, 52 (26.5%) eager to start-up, 46 (23.5%) open to any opportunity, and 16 (8.2%) to consider start-up option. Out of total, 5 (2.6%) prefer employment. Since the correlation value is within 0.5 to 0.8, start-up intention among degree students is said to correlate â€Å"adequately† with at least one other variables in the construct. In this survey, the KMO value is 0.819, which is considered good. Bartletts test of sphericity is used to analyse whether the correlation matrix is an identity matrix. Identity matrix can be ruled out if the p-value of the test is less than 0.05 (Karuthan and Krishna, 2009). In this model, since the p-value is less than 0.001, the researcher proceeds with factor analysis. Since the researcher wanted to study the underlying construct among the six variables: Curiosity, Interest, Consideration, Preparation, Setting Up and Start-up Timing. This is a single underlying concept; therefore, it is called the â€Å"Start-up Intent Structure†. Since the â€Å"Start-up Intent Structure† varies from person to person, it is a variable too. However, it cannot be measured by physical means. Hence, it is called a latent variable or just factor. The model for â€Å"Start-up Intent Structure† is given in Figure 4. In Figure 4, one can visualize six simultaneous regression functions: Curiosity, Interest, Consideration, Preparation, Setting Up and Start-up Timing as the dependents and â€Å"Start-up Intent Structure† as the independent. In the table above, since there are 6 variables in this analysis, 6 components (or factors) are listed in the first column. The respective eigen values and percent of variance explained are provided in the next two columns. For Factor 1, the eigen value is 3.109 and the variance is 51.811% of the total variance. For factor 3, 4,5 and 6 the eigen value is less than the default value of 1. In the same table, under â€Å"Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings†, only two factors are listed, corresponding to the factors for which the eigen values is more than 1. Based on the cumulative % column, these factors explain 68.792% of the total variance in the 6 original variables. According to Karuthan and Krishna, (2009) established that, in social sciences, at least 50% of the total variance in the variables in analysis must be explained by the factor of factors. In this survey, a single factor extracted explains more than 50% of the total variance in the original variables. Hypothesis 2: Motivations to switch job if employed in established firms associated with independent business start-ups We use multivariate data analysis to recognize the association between different motivation variables. The analysis has shown the variables in a scatter plot and quantifying the strength of association using correlation analysis. An association is established, both empirically and theoretically, therefore we pursued to obtain a regression model. This model, used to predict the value on entrepreneurial intention (outcome), given the values on the motivations to switch job if employed variables (predictors). Table 6, the p-value for the Levenes test for equality of variance is 0.000, which is less than 0.05. Thus, equality of variances is not assumed. Table 7 depicts that the F-value is 3.933 and the degrees of freedoms are 7 and 188. The p-value of the test is 0.000, which is less than 0.05 and the eta-squared value of 0.128, which is less than 0.15,hence, at least one pair of means differ significantly. Therefore there is a need to identify the pair that differs significantly. In this case, the researcher has performed posthoc tests. Based on Kruskal Wallis Test, the p-value of this test is 0.000, which is less than 0.05. Thus, at least one reason differs in terms of motivation towards self-employment rather employment. Based on Kruskal Wallis Test (Table 5) for the mean ranks, obviously, the degreed students are looking for a more challenging career in terms of expanded scope of work, more responsibilities and change in career path rank much higher compared to the students who looking to join a more established and stable organisations. On the other hand, 82.20% students feel that they need to escape from unfavourable office environment such as not happy with peers, bosses, office politics and etc. Based on Table 3.1, this supports students interest, whereby 97.4 cumulative percent and mean rank shown in table below of probability of considering the new business start-up.

Self Charging Cellphones Using Piezoelectric Zno Nanowires Engineering Essay

Self Charging Cellphones Using Piezoelectric Zno Nanowires Engineering Essay This paper aims at the transformation of mechanical energy, sound energy and various kinds of disturbances to electrical energy using piezoelectric materials. Using piezoelectric materials it is easily possible to convert any kind of mechanical stress to electrical energy and vice versa .Thus the sound produced during the usage of devices like cellphones can be converted to electrical energy and thus can be utilized for recharging the device. This paper presents a model of piezoelectric ZnO nanowire transducer for a gadget like mobile phone prototype of the power scavenging circuit, and the overall circuit for charging the mobile battery using the generated energy. INDEX TERMS : Charge generation, Diaphragm type , PVDF copolymer ,piezoelectric polymer , zinc oxide nanoparticle , Key depressions, Piezoelectric effect. INTRODUCTION A mobile phone (also known as a cellular phone, cell phone and a hand phone) is a device that can make and receive telephone calls over a radio link while moving around a wide geographic area. It does so by connecting to a cellular network provided by a mobile phone operator, allowing access to the public telephone network.A mobile phone uses a battery which serves as a power source for phone functions. The battery basically has one of the most important considerations when choosing a mobile phone.The basic cellphone batteries used are Lithium ion batteries which are of pouch format .These batteries are basically soft type with flat body.The talk-time battery time for a basic cellphone is considered to be six hours. Thus this short lifetime causes problem in case of battery rundown when there is no charging point available or during an important phone call. This problem of battery life in a mobile phone can be solved by using the unused power existing in form of sound ,vibration ,human activities, structures and environmental sources. Among these, one of the promising sources of recovering energy is from the vibrations generated by the key depressions of any keypad integrated device such as a mobile phone. Primarily, the selection of energy harvester as compared to other alternatives such as battery depends on two main factors, cost effectiveness and reliability. Conversion of mechanical low frequency stress into electrical energy is obtained through the direct piezoelectric effect, using a rectifier and DC-DC converter circuit to store the generated electrical energy. There are three primary steps in power generation: (a) trapping mechanical AC stress from available source. (b) Converting the mechanical energy to electrical energy using piezoelectric transducer. (c) Processing and storing the generated electrical energy. The mechanical output can be in the form of burst or continuous signal depending on the cyclic mechanical amplifier assembly. Depending on the frequency and amplitude of mechanical stress, one can design the required transducer, its dimensions, vibration mode and desired piezoelectric material. The energy generated is proportional to frequency and strain and higher energy can be obtained by operating at the resonance of the system. PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT The idea of this paper is to trap the vibrations of sound and other mechanical vibrations in a cellphone and use it to recharge the cellphone. Thus this creates a easier energy harvesting method. A conventional piezoelectric ceramic that is composed of a perovskite ceramic crystals, which consist of a small, tetravalent metal ion, usually of titanium or zirconium mineral, in an arrangement of lattice of larger, divalent lead or barium metal ions, and O2- ions (Figure 1). Under such arrangements they attain tetragonal or rhombohedral symmetry on the crystals. Individual crystal has a dipole moment. Refer Figure 1 b. Preparation of piezoelectric ceramicinvolves the following steps. The required proportions of Fine PZT powders of the component metal oxides are mixed. Then, it is heated to form a uniform powder. Now the piezo powder is mixed with an organic binder to get structural elements of desired shape (discs, rods, plates, etc.). The mixture is exposed to fire for a specific time and temperature program. It shapes the piezo powder particles and attains a dense crystalline structure. Finally the elements are cooled, then shaped or trimmed to various specifications, and electrodes are applied to the appropriate surfaces. Fig (1a) NOTE: Above the Curie point which is the critical temperature, the perovskite crystal in the fired ceramic element acquires a simple cubic symmetry with no dipole moment (Figure 1a).Below the Curie point, each crystal exihibits tetragonal or rhombohedral symmetry with a dipole moment (Figure 1b). Adjacent dipoles that are connected form regions of local alignment are called domains. This gives a net dipole moment to the domain, and thus a net polarization. The direction of polarization among all the adjacent domains is random, so the ceramic element has zero overall polarization (Figure 1a). Figure(1.b) CRYSTAL STRUCRURE PIEZOELECTRIC CERAMIC The alignment of the domains is done by exposing them to a stronger and direct current electric field,at a temperature slightly below the Curie point (Figure:2b). Through this special polarizing treatment, domains that are aligned closer with the electric field expand at the expense of unaligned domains, and the element lengthens in the direction of the field. When the electric field is withdrawn, nearly all the dipoles are locked into a configuration of closer alignment (Figure:2c). The element now is said to have permanent polarization, the permanent polarization, and is permanently elongated. Fig(2) POLARIZING OR POLLING A PIEZO CRYSTAL The tension produced by the mechanical compression on a poled piezoelectric ceramic element alters the dipole moment due to which a voltage is created. voltage of the same polarity as that of the poling voltageis generated by the compression produced along the direction of polarization, or tension perpendicular to the direction of polarization. Tension opposite to the direction of polarization, or compression parallel to the direction of polarization, generates a voltage with polarity opposite that of the poling voltage i.e., Disk is stretched. These actions are called generator actions .The ceramic element converts the mechanical energy (due to compression / tension) into electrical energy. This action is used in fuel-igniting devices, solid state batteries, force-sensing devices, and many other products. Values for compressive stress and the voltage (or field strength) generated by applying stress to a piezoelectric ceramic element are linearly proportional up to a material-specifi c stress. And also true for applied voltage and generated strain. fig (3): The piezoelectric materials are advantageous in that they do not rely on external power sources (e.g., batteries or alternating current (AC) power) for continued operations, unlike strain gages  ¬Ã‚ ber optics , wireless sensor nodes, micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) devices , and other types of sensing systems. Unfortunately, PZT and PVDF suffer from fundamental limitations intrinsic to their material. Although piezo-ceramic PZT transducers possess high piezoelectricity and d33 piezoelectric constants approximately 200-400 pC N-1 , they are extremely brittle, have high loss factors, and are characterized by highly hysteretic behavior . On the other hand, piezoelectric polymers such as PVDF and PVDF-copolymers are  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡exible, conformable, and can be fabricated to different sizes and thicknesses . However, they possess considerably lower piezoelectric constants are compared to PZTs (10 pC N-1) and require intricate mechanical stretching to enhance their bulk  ¬Ã‚ lm piezo-electricity. Furthermore, both PVDF  ¬Ã‚ lms and PZTs require high-voltage poling so as to enhance their piezo-electricity. Thus, in order to use piezoelectric transducers for sensing applications in complex laboratory and  ¬Ã‚ eld environments, it is desirable for them to simultaneously possess high piezoelectricity and excellent mechanical properties. On the other hand, the nanotechnology domain offers a diverse suite of new materials and composite fabrication methodologies for high-performance piezoelectrics . Among the plethora of nanomaterials, zinc oxide (ZnO) nanostructures (e.g., nanowires, nanosprings, and nanoparticles, among others) can be readily synthesized and exhibit inherent piezoelectricity . BLOCK DIAGRAM The basic block diagram of the proposed model is shown in Fig. below. It consists of 3 main blocks, (a) piezoelectric power generation (b) rectification (c) storage of DC voltage. AC voltage is generated from the piezoelectric material which is rectified by the rectification block and then it is stored in a storage device such as a battery. Fig (4):BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION (PROTOTYPE MODEL OF PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIAL FOR MOBILE PHONES ) A diaphragm assembly comprises at least two piezoelectric diaphragm members arranged in a stacking direction. An interface layer is situated between adjacent piezoelectric diaphragm members. The interface layer in the stacking direction is displaceable and incompressible or resilient. The interface layer permits lateral movement of the adjacent piezoelectric diaphragm members relative to the interface layer in a direction perpendicular to the stacking direction. The interface layer can comprise, for example, an incompressible liquid or a semi fluid or a compressible gas. A gasket can be used to seal the substance in the interface layer if necessary. Fig. 5. Basic model of diaphragm type piezoelectricity generation. 1. Electrodes 2. Piezoelectric material (PVDF) 3. SiO2 4. n-Si 5. Hole for the central part of film to deform itself CIRCUITRY The figure illustrates the overall circuit diagram of the entire process. The rectifier shown in the Fig maybe either a full wave rectification circuit or a half wave rectification circuit based on the combination of diodes or a voltage double rectifier. Since a diode is being used in the rectifier, a p-n junction diode or a Schottky diode can be used. The Schottky diode has a threshold voltage which is lesser than that of a p-n junction diode. For example, if the diode is formed on a silicon substrate, a p-n diode may have a threshold voltage of approximately 0.065 volts while the threshold voltage of a Schottky diode is approximately 0.30 volts. Accordingly, the uses of Schottky diode instead of p-n diode will reduce the power consumption required for rectification and will effectively increase the electrical charge available for accumulation by the capacitor. When the electromotive force in the piezoelectricity generation section is small, a Schottky diode having a low rising volt age is more preferable. The bridge rectifier section provides rectification of the AC voltage generated by the piezoelectric section. By arranging the rectification section on a monolithic n-Si substrate, it is possible to form a very compact rectification section. A typical diode can rectify an alternating current-that is, it is able to block part of the current so that it will pass through the diode in only one direction. However, in blocking part of the current, the diode reduces the amount of electric power the current can provide. A full-wave rectifier is able to rectify an alternating current without blocking any part of it. The voltage between two points in an AC circuit regularly changes from positive to negative and back again. In the full-wave rectifier shown in Fig the positive and negative halves of the current are handled by different pairs of diodes. The output signal produced by the full-wave rectifier is a DC voltage, but it pulsates. To be useful, this signal must be smoothed out to produce a constant voltage at the output. A simple circuit for filtering the signal is one in which a capacitor is in parallel with the output. With this arrangement, the capacitor becomes charged as the voltage of the signal produced by the rectifier increases. As soon as the voltage begins to drop, the capacitor begins to discharge, maintaining the current in the output. This discharge continues until the increasing voltage of the next pulse again equals the voltage across the capacitor. The rectified voltage is stored into a storage capacitor as shown in Fig., which gets charged upto a pre-decided value, at which the switch closes and the capacitor discharges through the storage device or the battery. In this way the energy can be stored in the capacitor, and can be discharged when required . Fig 6:Circuit diagram of the whole process. RESULTS The material used for the current application is a PZT with 1.5 Mpa lateral stress operating at 15Hz. The output power produced is 1.2W. The energy/power density is 6mW/cm3.The output voltage is 9V [8]. The volume of the material used is 0.2cm3. This voltage can be used to produce the required amount of charge after being processed. CONCLUSION The design of the proposed energy conservation system for mobile phones and has been presented in this paper. The design helps to provide easy energy harvesting technique for mobile phones.The design presented here will be quite effective in providing an alternate means of power supply for the mentioned devices during emergency.The design is improved by implementing nanowires .The implementation of nanowires reduces the size of the system and also improves the efficiency on the other hand increases the cost of the system.Thus this design converts the vibrartion due to sound and key depression into electrical energy to recharge the mobile phones.